Maltreatment is the act of subjecting an individual to all forms of abuse including neglect, physical torture, negligent treatment, exploitation, sexual abuse, harassment, and emotional abuse among others. Maltreatment has potential or actual harm to someone’s health, dignity, development, and survival (Weiss et al, 2011).  Child maltreatment is a complex issue infringing on our modern society and it has a far-reaching consequence on both physical and mental health for children below the age of 18. Child maltreatment practices are classified as follows sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect (MacMillan, 2000; Reyome, 2010). Physical abuse is violence that can cause physical injuries to the child. Sexual abuse is committed indecencies to a child on either forceful way or willingly (Pollak, 2015). Neglect is a condition that arises when the child is deprived of getting sufficient basic needs such as food, shelter, and clothing (Bartlett & Easterbrooks, 2012). Emotional abuse involves exposing the child to all forms of psychological traumatization such as the use of abusive words and evincing rejection to the child among others.

Child maltreatment has complex and profound effects on the child’s mental health, development, and survival. The complications that emerge from child maltreatment have long term and lifelong consequences, which are linked with physical, behavioral and psychological consequences (Garner et al., 2014). For instance, a child undergoing neglect or abuse may have a stunted physical development of the brain that leads to psychological complications. Further psychological and behavioral consequences include lowered self-esteem that can lead to substance abuse, diminished cognitive skills and executive functioning, posttraumatic stress, social difficulties, intent to commit suicide, and poor emotional among others (Goodman, Quas & Ogle, 2010; Van Wert, Mishna & Malti, 2016). Children undergoing maltreatment are vulnerable to future or long-term health issues such as diabetes, vision problems, arthritis, cancer, brain damage, bowel diseases, and migraine headaches among others.

Understanding child maltreatment and its influence on the child’s mental health is important since it provides an insight for stopping the act of maltreating Children. In addition, it acknowledges the public on the need to end child maltreatment. Therefore, the aim of this study puts emphasis on a developmental approach to understand the Influence of maltreatment/abuse in childhood on adolescents’ mental health.

The risk factors of childhood maltreatment/abuse

Individuals with a history of abuse in childhood are at increased risk of maltreating their own children.  According to the study done by Dixon, Browne, & Hamilton-Giachritsis (2005), found that parents who had experience of maltreatment in their childhood had partial mediation of child maltreatment under two risk factors that include family and parent factors. Parental factors are as follows, depression, anxiety, emotional problems, mental illness, reduced self-esteem and substance abuse (Briere, 1992). Factors under the category of the family include low income, poverty, isolation, inadequate social support, early parental age, early maternal deprivation, and residing with stepparents (Brown et al., 1998; Straus 1990).  The common factors that tend to intercede child maltreatment are becoming a parent below the age of 21, having depression or mental illness and residing with an aggressive or violent adult (Dixon, Browne, & Hamilton-Giachritsis, 2005). 

Parents that have undergone child maltreatment are prone to face future complications based on the intensity of historical maltreatment they went through. Some of these complications include birth or pregnancy complications and physical disabilities. Individuals with a history of child abuse have high chances or a tendency to engage with aggressive partners. The parental history constituting child maltreatment has a higher likelihood of parents becoming violent to their children (Egeland et al., 2002; Reckdenwald, Mancini & Beauregard, 2013). Consequently, these aspects create an intergeneration cycle of child abuse or child maltreatment that may not cease of there is no control interventions over further occurrences of similar events. Therefore, there is a need for enforcing child rights and policies that protects children from maltreatment.

The perspective of attachment theory on child maltreatment/abuse on adolescents’ mental health

Bowlby (1969) provides a concept on proximity attachment exhibited by the mother to child during early infancy and subsequently changing dimensions of attachment across various ages of development. Positive behavior patterns of the mother will complement the accomplishment of this kind of attachment since it is a way of survival for the toddler. Infant behaviors seek attention for attachment through looming objects and making loud noises when left alone until attainment of contact (Zeanah, Berlin, & Boris, 2011). The behaviors of seeking attachment cease immediately upon contact. They change to vocalizing, smiling and clinging purposely for maintaining the proximity of attachment to the mother.  A secured bond of attachment from the primary caregiver to the child is fundamental in the development of the (Hocking, Simons & Surette, 2016). The rationale underpinning this perspective is that the attachment dictates the perceptions of the child about others and self-image throughout life (Ainsworth 1979).

The quality and nature of infant care differ among parents, however, parental responsiveness and attunement can yield a secure attachment. Children with a secured attachment are able to seek comfort from their caregivers in situations they feel distressed. In this regard, children perceive to be sufficiently safe when they have low stress and are able to explore their surroundings in many times. Contrary, parental harsh rejection and unavailability are related to avoidant and insecure attachment (Moss et al., 2011). The children perceive themselves as unable to seek care from their caregivers and unlovable. This kind of perception is contagious in nature whereby the children may view others as disinterested and punitive in them. Avoidant and anxious children fear to seek comfort from their parents when distressed since they want to avoid punishment and rejection from their parents. Parental inconsistencies bring about ambivalent-anxious attachment that makes children have a belief that they are unable to care and sustain the interest of others (Wilkins, 2012). Ambivalent-anxious children are always vigilant on the responsive and whereabouts of their parents and portray intensified overtures to incite parental responsiveness.

There is immense and indisputable evidence that early parental attachment has a far-reaching impact on child development, especially at the middle age level. The attachment has an influence on childhood development as from the development of neurocognitive to competencies in social-behavioral development. The attachment quality is influenced by the interactions between the parent and the child (Pears et al., 2010). Various studies have shown that high quality of childhood attachment has a substantial influence on later stages of development.

The adolescents have rapid social, cognitive and neurological changes that create the dilemma of social-cognitive that include the integration of diverse and new experiences in conjunction with oneself and the world. In addition, adolescence provides a dilemma that tends to maintain the attachment with parents as well as exploring social aspects away from parents. However, successful adolescence transition requires parental attachment (Weiss et al., 2011). In fact, a healthy adolescence transition is enhanced through emotional connectedness and secure attachment from parents. Research asserts that the attachment security portrayed in childhood has a similar effect on adolescents’ development. A secured attachment foundation promotes competence in social, emotional and cognitive development (Lowell, Renk, & Adgate, 2014). Adolescents with secure attachments have minimal interest in engaging with drug use, excessive drinking, and maladaptive activities. Female adolescents are less likely to get teenage pregnancy as compared to those with insecure attachment.

Insecurely attached adolescents are disposed to mental health issues such as inattention, anxiety, depression, conduct disorder, aggression, delinquency, and thought problems. In addition, insecurely attached female adolescents have high rates of eating disorders that contribute to their overweight (Mersky, Topitzes & Reynolds, 2012). Children undergoing maltreatment from their parents are at risk of getting detached from their biological parents and may proceed to seek attachment from other people. Consequently, they remain vulnerable to long-term mistreatment from strangers whom they endure working under them to gain basic needs. Adolescents with a better quality of attachment have social and adaptive skills that help them to cope up with different environments. In addition, they are able to enjoy positive relationships with minimal conflicts with family members, peers, and other adolescents (Pietromonaco, Uchino & Schetter, 2013). Adolescents undergoing maltreatment with less secured parent-adolescent attachment are associated with delinquent behavior, drug use, suicidality, and aggressive behaviors (Van Wert, Mishna, & Malti, 2016).

 Mikulincer and Shaver (2007), provided an extension on Bowlby’s work concerning attachment and proposed two dimensions that can assist in finding the position of an individual in relation to attachment. The two dimensions include avoidance and anxiety attachment, which in this case they are applicable to the adolescents’ security of attachment. Adolescents with a low score of avoidance and anxiety use brilliant affect-regulation and constructive strategies. On the other hand, adolescents with high scores on the two dimensions undergo insecurity problems and tend to seek secondary attachments either through hyper-activating methods or through deactivating attachment system mainly for coping up with threats.

As noted in the literature above, adolescents tend to seek relationships outside their families. An adolescent with a history of maltreatment is likely to fall into the dimension of avoidant attachment. Whereby, they avoid closeness and the urge to seek proximity as well as avoiding the attachment needs in relationships (Paradis & Boucher, 2010). Adolescents with a high score of attachment anxiety depend on hyper-activating approaches in an attempt to attain their proximity, love, and support. However, they have little confidence in whether their proximity achievement. 

The attachment theory asserts that unreliable, inconsistency and insensitive interactions with the attachment figures can lead to unstable mental foundation and insecurity. In addition, the competency for resilience in difficult or stressful situations will be affected and the person will be disposed to a psychological breakdown. The insecurity of attachment among adolescents increases their vulnerability to mental disorders related to symptomatology factors that include developmental, environmental and genetic factors. Shaver and Mikulincer (2007) reviewed prospective, longitudinal and cross-sectional studies including both non-clinical and clinical samples. Their findings showed that attachment insecurity was manifested in individuals with personality disorders, schizophrenia, mental disorders and those with mild stress. From the recent studies, attachment insecurities are the root cause of depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder, eating disorders and suicidal tendencies among adolescents and adults (Caldwell, Shaver & Minzenberg, 2011).

Attachment insecurity counts for many personality disorders portrayed by adults and adolescents (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). A personality disorder is a mental illness whereby an individual does not show any concern for what is right or wrong and cares less for the feelings and rights of others. This goes in line with an avoidant attachment that might have developed because of maltreatment from parents. Anxious attachment in the context of personality brings about histrionic, borderline and dependent disorders. On the other hand, avoidant attachment effects on personality include avoidant and schizoid disorders. According to Crawford et al., (2007), attachment anxiety leads to emotional dysregulation that constitute a bigger percentage of personality disorders that include cognitive distortions, anxiety, self-harm, narcissism, submissiveness, suspiciousness and emotional lability. Avoidant attachment further leads to “personality inhibitedness’’ whereby a person has restricted emotion expressions, social avoidance and intimacy problems (Crawford et al., 2007),

Attachment insecurities are sufficiently proven by various studies as the root cause of mental disorders among adolescents. The rationale underpinning this perspective is the fact that it begins from childhood. One of the main contributing factors to attachment insecurities is child maltreatment. Children undergoing mistreatment are likely to develop avoidant attachment in late stages of development. Avoidant attachment is associated with stressful events such as sex abuse, torture, physical beatings from parents, neglect, and discomfort among others. Life history plays a key role in determining the levels of psychological distress and avoidant attachments that lead to depression (O’Hara et al., 2015). The history of psychological, sexual and physical abuse can transit to present insecurity attachment between parents and their children. Other factors that strengthen insecurities of attachment include poverty, stressful environments, toxic relationships during adolescence and mental health issues (Drake & Jonson, 2014). Child maltreatment has a huge impact on the psychology of a child. Research findings indicate that psychological problems can lead to attachment insecurities.

In conclusion, attachment insecurities increase vulnerability for psychopathology. Therefore, maintenance of a better quality of attachment would improve mental health and resilience among adolescents. The attachment theory proclaims that interactions with supportive and available figures can enhance positive emotions i.e. love, satisfaction, relief, and gratitude. Secure adolescents are highly unperturbed in situations that bring stress and they are able to recover very fast from the distress episodes. In this regard, they are able to generally manage their emotions, which would to better mental health. 

The perspective of social learning theory on child maltreatment/abuse on adolescents’ mental health

Bandura (1971) proposed a model based on social learning that includes acquiring cognitive and social behaviors through observation. This is to ascertain that children view the elderly as their role model. Therefore, they tend to mimic the actions and behaviors portrayed by those they view as their models. In most cases, parents play a big part in being role models to their children. Occasions where children are within an environment constituted by a series of violence they gain exposure to a set of rationalizations and norms that support violence (Goldberg, Muir & Kerr, 2013). In this context, they are denied a chance to learn nurturing and appropriate forms that depict child-adult interactions. Therefore, children perceive violence as a normal and acceptable way of perhaps solving problematic situations and expressing emotions. Punishments and rewards are the main catalysts that strengthen learning through observations when dispensed by the model. In relation to the aspect of child maltreatment, experiencing and observing, i.e. a mother hitting a child for bad mouthing and then child stops the behavior through reinforced punishment. It is an approval for the child that violence works.

Many studies have established the interconnection of childhood victimization that has high chances of adulthood violence and it’s due to this reason the intergeneration cycle of child abuse does not seem to end (Pietromonaco et al., 2013). It is indisputable that parents who observed and underwent childhood maltreatment would do the same to their own children during the parenting period. Contrary, children who only observe and may never have had the experience of child maltreatment have potentialities of embracing violence during interpersonal interactions at adult age or even in parenting (Zavala, 2013; Prinz, 2016). Through witnessing violence and other negative actions, children are able to learn violent and maladaptive approaches of reacting to anger and stress. Various studies have established that adults or parents that abuse their children are characterized to have come from a home that has marital violence and discord (Topitzes, Mersky, & Reynolds, 2012; Jennings et al., 2013).

Sexual abuse intergenerational patterns have high degree dependency on the childhood experience of molestation. A study conducted by Beck in 1989 proclaimed that 58% of the respondents (Child molesters) reported having undergone the experience of molestation in their childhood. This case was compared with other incidences of rape and sexual abuse where the results showed similar findings as demonstrated by Beck’s findings. The history of sexual victimization also holds for the reasons for adulthood sexual offenders (Millett et al., 2013).

High hostility exposure to children in the home environment has downstream effects that are linked with maltreatment and adverse outcomes. For instance, consistent anger exposure signals a hostile and threatening environment that can influence the diurnal cortisol pulses among children that act as moderation between aggressive and abuse behavior (Bernard,  Zwerling & Dozier, 2015). The intensity and consistency of anger observed by a child has implications on the child’s emotion classification and representations, which afterward influences on how the child judges other people (Plate et al., 2018). For the child to have social competence he/she must have the capability to interpret emotions correctly failure to which the child’s social development will be damaged. When the anger expressed by the child’s model is extreme, the child may opt to adopt the expressed standard of anger to fellow peers or other people (Plate et al., 2019). This is a clear indication, the child had learned from observation as stated in the social learning theory. This kind of expression may have interpersonal relationship problems. Consequently, the interactions with other peers may raise other problematic disorders such as depression, loneliness, and stress among others. Therefore, parents and guardians should try as much as possible to control the expression of their anger in order to limit observational opportunities from children. This a skill that is normally used in handling maltreated children for recovery purposes (Plate et al., 2019).

Adolescents normally belong to a crucial stage of development and have fluctuating emotional habits. The desire to have great autonomy as their colleagues and their models put them under pressure. In most cases, adolescents would want recognition on various aspects including their physical appearances. Female adolescents are always alert on personal physical outlook and it is due to the reason they would try as much to mimic celebrity models. In addition, the aspect of thin-ideal internalization has gained dominance among teenagers that further leads to complications of eating disorders. Female adolescents who do not meet the expected standards of thinness have low self-esteem themselves. Bodyweight Stigmatization has also been the contributing factor that may cause mental health disorders among adolescents.

Researchers have found that most of adulthood and adolescence mental health had its origin in childhood. Some of the disturbances affiliated to mental health have made many adolescents develop relationship difficulties, school failure, drug abuse, suicide and at risk to engage in dangerous maladaptive behaviors (Luke & Banerjee, 2012). This is because some of the activities that led to their presented impairment are continuously affecting their emotions whenever they encounter the prosecutors. According to the theory of social learning, children might pick behaviors from models that don note suit their actual life that may subsequently lead to self-denial and regret. For instance, excessive substance abuse, euphoria, violence, and anger among others. In particular, the use of substance abuse has a huge impact on mental health. Some of the mental illnesses associated with substance abuse include anxiety and depression. There have been several cases recorded for teenagers seeking substance abuse to relieve them from stress and rejection from society because of their behavior. In addition, most of the recorded suicidal cases are associated with substance abuse such as consumption of hard drugs including cocaine, heroin, Bhang, marijuana among others.

In conclusion, the environment upon which children are raised has an influence on the child’s social and cognitive behaviors. According to Bandura’s theory of social learning asserts that children tend to adopt some of the behaviors of people that offer closer attachment to the child and to whom the children perceive to be their role models. Exposure to negative characters and behaviors to the children has lifelong consequences on their personal behavior and mental health. Therefore, elderly individuals, parents, and guardians should try to suppress some of the toxic behaviors in front of their children.

The comparison between attachment theory and social learning theory viewpoints on child maltreatment/abuse on adolescents’ mental health

The attachment theory emphasizes on human relations that confers on emotional attachment. The principle upholding the main concept of this theory in the early developmental stages of a toddler attachment to the caregiver. The kind of attachment is dependent on parent-child interactions (Pickreign et al., 2011; Thomas & Zimmer, 2012). There are two types of attachment; they include a secure and insecure attachment. Secure attachment is regarded to be most essential for up bring a child since it enhances a child’s social, physical and mental health. Contrary, insecure attachment leads to mental disorders of anxiety and avoidance because of poor interactions with the parents. Insecurities normally emerge in instances the child undergoes maltreatment from parents or guardians.

The social learning theory also emphasizes on the early stage of child development. It asserts that a child learns through observation, which then defines the child’s cognitive and social behaviors. The individuals in close proximity to the child have a huge impact on the child’s social behavior since the child tends to mimic the behaviors portrayed at their disposal. The mimicked behavior can have either a negative or positive impact on the child’s social life.  For example, if the child sees their role models expressing their anger through violence and the action is justified they tend to perceive violence is a normal way of solving anger issues.

Both the attachment theory and social learning theory have shown indicators or factors that can lead to child maltreatment intergenerational cycle (Juffer et al., 2017). Parents with a history of child maltreatment such as attachment insecurities have high chances of maintaining attachment insecurities to their children. The reason behind this kind of response is related to the consequences they underwent that led to mental illness and personality changes (Hong et al., 2012). The same kind of scenario is reaffirmed in the social learning theory. For instance, when children are exposed to victimization or have an experience of being victimized there is the likelihood that in their adult stage they may embrace the same scenario, which then makes the intergenerational cycle of victimization complete. 

Both theories agree that child maltreatment has a lifelong consequence on child mental health. Some mental health disorders include anxiety, depression, euphoria, cognitive distortions, submissiveness, narcissism among others.  In addition, personal characteristics are dependent on how the child is treated in all stages of development.

The differences between the attachment theory and social learning theory

The theory of social learning indicates that individuals that form part of the child’s environment including peer group, caregiver culture, society among others influence child learning. On the other hand, the attachment theory only confines the caregiver as the person whom the child relates throughout the early phase of development and gets to learn from the caregiver. The distinct point in this context relies on the number of individuals involved in the developmental process.

The attachment dependency or behavior changes simultaneously as the child’s mental cognitive develop (Goldberg et al., 2013). It is due to this reason most the adolescents tend to be slightly detached from their parents in trying to find new relationships of attachment outside the family sphere. However, the attachment quality is elucidated depending on the parent or caregiver’s way of interactions (Cicchetti & Doyle, 2016). According to Ainsworth (1967), he classified various behavioral patterns a child can adopt for the caregiver during interactions, they include avoidant, secure, disorganized and ambivalent behavior. On the other hand, social learning can last forever simply because every individual learns from other behaviors that suit them. It is through the results of such behaviors that other people get motivated to adopt them. For example, some undesired behaviors are associated with negative consequences; therefore, an individual may not be willing to embrace them in their own lives.

There is unintentional learning that prevails in the theory of attachment that is dominated by the caregiver at the infancy stage such as eating and working. In the theory of social learning, the child learns through two dimensions, learning unintentionally and intentionally. Unintentional learning occurs at the early stages of child development that includes walking and eating. In the late stages of development, the consciousness of the child enables him/her to select behavior based on certain motives. The parents can control some of the negative behaviors shown by children at the age of 8 and the child is able to avoid them. In this regard, some aspects of the two theories tend to be complemented by either of the two theories. For instance, the aspect of interaction must co-exist between the parent and child or the caregiver and the child. Some of the behaviors are learned through interactions in both theories.

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